Dual Link of Agriculture Sector with Air Pollution in Pakistan

Agriculture is the backbone of food supply and food security for the entire world’s population. It provides livelihoods for millions of people, particularly in rural areas, thus playing an important role in the economic growth of a country and poverty reduction[i]. It also supplies raw materials for various industries such as textiles and pharmaceuticals and supports global trade.

In Pakistan, agriculture is a major economic sector that absorbs approximately 42% of the labour force, mainly composed of women, and contributes 25% to national GDP. It also generates over 75% of export revenue via agri-based textiles (cotton, rice etc)[ii]. It is estimated that Pakistan has about 23.4 million hectares land under cultivation [iii].

Animal husbandry or livestock sector is a vital part of Pakistan’s agricultural sector, accounting for about 60.84% of its value added. It also contributes to the country’s GDP, such as during the year 2023 to 2024, it contributed almost 14.63% to Pakistan’s GDP. Pakistan is the fifth largest milk producer in the world, with a gross annual production of 70 million tons in 2023–2024 [iv].

Given its scale and impact, agriculture is a key sector at the forefront of fighting climate change and air pollution. The agriculture sector not only produces greenhouse gases (GHG) and contributes to air pollution, but it also suffers from the high levels of air pollutants in the atmosphere in the form of damage and reduced productivity of crops. In this article, we aim to explore this dual link of the agriculture sector with air pollution and climate change.

Agriculture as a Contributor to Air Pollution in Pakistan

Traditional agricultural practices in Pakistan lead to emission of multiple air pollutants into the atmosphere such as ammonia, methane, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and particulate matter. According to a study conducted by Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO) and Government of Punjab in 2019, 43% of emissions are generated by transport sector, 25% by industrial sector and 20% by agriculture sector in only Punjab province of Pakistan [v]. It should also be noted that a significant proportion of transport is inherently associated with agricultural activities.

Ammonia: Decomposition of manure from livestock and application of nitrogen-based fertilizers release ammonia into the atmosphere that combines with other pollutants to form particulate matter (PM2.5). Synthetic and organic fertilizers and microbial processes in soil also release nitrous oxide.

Methane: Ruminant animals, such as cows and sheep, produce methane during digestion through a process known as enteric fermentation. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas that significantly contributes to air pollution and global warming. Methane is also released during processing of animal manure to make biogas.

Particulate matter: Activities such as tilling, harvesting, and movement of vehicles on unpaved roads generate particulate matter, which can cause respiratory problems when inhaled.

Furthermore, in many areas, burning crop residue is common to clear fields for next crop, releasing large amounts of particulate matter and greenhouse gases into the air. Although banned by the government, the burning of crop residue continues to contribute to air pollution.

Finally, most of the logistics and transport linked with agriculture like tractors, trucks, trolleys, harvesters etc are using old machinery that emit toxic smoke into the atmosphere due to fossil fuel burning.

Agriculture as a Victim of Air Pollution in Pakistan

While agriculture contributes to the air pollution, it also heavily suffers from it. High levels of particulate matter and other greenhouse gases in the air affect the plants, trees, crop fields and livestock.

Air pollutants like ground-level ozone penetrates plant tissues and impacts the process of photosynthesis resulting in stunted growth of plants and lower crop yields, particularly in sensitive crops like wheat, maize, rice, and soybeans. Ground level ozone is formed by the reaction of sunlight with nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. Several farmers in Punjab area reported problems with germination of their wheat crop and yield of other seasonal crops when smog hit Pakistan in late 2024.

Particulate matter can settle on plant surfaces, blocking sunlight and inhibiting photosynthesis. This results in reduced plant growth and overall productivity of crops. Certain components of particulate matter, such as heavy metals and toxic organic compounds, can be absorbed by plants, contaminating the food supply and posing health risks to consumers.

Another adverse effect of air pollution on agriculture is the formation of acid rain by mixing of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide with water vapours in the atmosphere. When acid rain combines with soil it alters its pH, depletes essential nutrients, and releases toxic metals thus destroying crop health and yield.

The emission of greenhouse gases from agriculture and other sectors has resulted in climate change, which in turn leads to extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves. These events also devastate crops and disrupt agricultural productivity.

Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) Practices

To effectively mitigate air pollution caused by agriculture sector, climate smart agricultural practices need to be adopted. Climate smart agriculture is a comprehensive strategy for managing farmlands, crops, livestock, and forests that counteracts the negative impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity. Here are some examples of climate smart agriculture practices:

1. Sustainable Livestock Management

The three pillars of sustainable livestock management are improved nutrition, less waste, and more efficient feeding. Activities for climate smart agriculture in sustainable livestock management involve specialized feed formulations, and manure management.

Advanced manure management techniques should be implemented, such as composting and anaerobic digestion. They can significantly reduce methane and ammonia emissions and produce valuable by-products like organic fertilizers and biogas. This can be done through biogas plants that can also produce energy used for cooking and generation of electricity.

Livestock diets should be adjusted to include feed additives that reduce enteric fermentation. These steps can lower methane emissions. Research and development of cost-effective feed additives tailored to local conditions should be promoted.

2. Nutrient Management

Different types of crops should be grown in the same area over multiple growing seasons. This practice of ‘crop rotation’ is a sustainable agricultural practice that improves soil health by reducing nutrient runoff, reduces the risk of pests and weeds, helps increase food production and prevent emission of GHG into the atmosphere from synthetic fertilizers[vi].

To fulfil the nutritional needs of the soil for good productivity of crops, farmers use synthetic fertilizers. These fertilizers are a source of ammonia emissions into the atmosphere. If organic and inorganic fertilizers are used in combination, they can improve soil health and reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers, thereby lowering nitrous oxide emissions.

Precision agriculture techniques, such as GPS-guided equipment and soil sensors should be utilized to optimize fertilizer application, reducing nitrous oxide emissions. This approach ensures that fertilizers are applied only where needed, minimizing excess use.

3. Conservation Agriculture

Adopting conservation tillage practices, such as no-till or reduced tillage, can minimize soil erosion and particulate matter emissions. These practices help maintain soil structure and organic matter, enhancing soil health.

Planting cover crops during fallow periods can reduce soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and sequester carbon, contributing to overall air quality improvement.

Encouraging farmers to use crop residues for bioenergy production can provide a sustainable alternative to burning. Bio-refineries can convert agricultural waste into valuable products like biofuels, biomaterials, and biochar.

Incorporating crop residues back into the soil as organic matter can enhance soil fertility and reduce particulate matter emissions. This practice also helps retain moisture and improve soil structure.

4. Agroforestry

The practice of growing trees alongside crops or livestock is called agroforestry. This climate smart agriculture practice creates shade, breaks high speed of wind and improves nutrient cycling for their “neighbors”, while also sequestering agri-related carbon dioxide. Agroforestry systems, which incorporate trees and shrubs into farmland to improve biodiversity and soil fertility, can be used to form more rich agricultural landscapes [vii].

Some examples of agroforestry practices in Pakistan are as follows [viii]:

Fodder and cereal crops are grown in combination with mango, guava and citrus orchards.
Poplar trees are grown along canal banks and farm boundaries for timber and shade.
Multipurpose trees such as Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria and Ziziphus mauritiana are planted in arid and semi-arid regions for fodder, fuelwood, gum and medicinal uses.
Walnuts, apricots, apple and other fruit trees are grown in mountainous regions for food and income.
Date palm trees are grown in desert areas for food, shade and windbreaks.
Bamboo trees are grown along the riverbanks and slopes for erosion control and making handicrafts.
Medicinal plants such as Aloe vera, Withania somnifera and Moringa oleifera are planted in home gardens for health and nutrition.

Agroforestry can increase the productivity and profitability of agriculture by diversifying the sources of income, reducing the risk of crop failure, improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of agriculture in Pakistan, as well as enhance the ecological health and resilience of the land.

5. Cultivating Climate Resilient Crops

Growing air pollution and rising average temperatures due to global warming have affected crop yields. Agronomists are able to grow modified seeds that are more resistant to temperature and precipitation extremes, and pests. These seeds are developed through traditional breeding and genetic modification techniques ^[ix].

Millet is an example of climate resilient crops that have a short life cycle and can grow in areas with little rainfall. Finger millet is a staple in arid regions of Africa and South Asia[x]. Other examples include cassava and climate resilient maize. The cassava tubers can be stored in the ground for up to two to three years, providing food security during extreme weather events while maize variety can give 5 to 25% more yield in Africa.

Cultivating climate-resilient crops varieties can help farmers mitigate the climate change impact on crop production[xi].

6. Water Management

The process of treating and transporting water requires energy, which often comes from fossil fuels. Less water usage translates to less energy consumption and subsequently reduced air pollution from power plants and related emissions. Essentially, conserving water helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with water treatment and distribution.

Water conservation is linked to climate change because climate change makes water scarce and unpredictable. Water conservation can also help reduce the risk of extreme weather events and improve the planet’s ecosystem[xii].

Precision irrigation, drip irrigation, and collecting rainwater are all examples of effective climate-smart agriculture strategies that can be used to maximize water consumption efficiency and reduce negative effects on the environment. In dry seasons, these methods guarantee that crops receive enough water with minimal wastage.

7. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Pesticide spraying on the fields leads to the release of toxic chemicals into the air, adding pollutants into the atmosphere. Reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides will help control air pollution[xiii].

Use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a climate smart farming strategy for controlling pests, weeds, and diseases that prioritize ecological safety. It involves long-term prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, change of cultural practices, and use of resistant plant varieties. These practices have proven to be effective in lowering the need for synthetic pesticides.

Biological control: Biological control involves using beneficial predators that prey upon harmful insects. For example, lady beetles eat aphids and predatory mites that eat thrips and scales.

Parasitoids: It also uses parasitoids that are mostly wasps and flies that live and feed in or on a host insect killing it. For example, tiny parasitic wasps lay eggs into other insects and their offspring eat the insect from within.

Microbes: Another way of biological control is applying microbial insecticides to crops. Microbes are pathogens like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, protozoa and viruses that cause disease. These pathogens are available commercially as microbial insecticides, biorational or bio-insecticides[xiv].

Cultural methods of IPM pest control include changing planting dates, weed management, plant selection and introducing natural predators. Details of cultural methods are as follows:

Changing Planting Dates: Pests are highly active during certain timeframes and are attracted to specific species of plants more compared to others. By making changes to the planting schedule, the presence of pests on the property can be easily limited. Some pests migrate from one place to another in search of flowering plants, if those plants don’t flower during that season pest activity can be prevented.

Introducing Natural Predators: The presence of pests can be discouraged depending on the number of natural predators that live in the surrounding area. Predators vary by species, which is why it is essential that a professional should accurately determine the species of pest before beginning a pest control service. Increasing the number of pest predators, therefore, decreases the number of pests in a safe, non-harmful way.

Weed Management: Weeds not only take up valuable space and nutrients from the soil, but they also provide a habitat for a range of pests. Therefore, maintaining the removal of pest-attracting weeds is essential. However, some weeds can help attract natural pest-eating predators.

Plant Selection: Some plants due to certain chemicals in them, act as resistant cultivars that ward bugs and insects off. Whereas some plants are simply not a good food source for pests.

Trap Crops: Using trap crops means specifically planting a crop that attracts insects, then chemically treating only that location. This way effectiveness of pesticides can be used safely. Using pesticides over entire properties or fields can be severely damaging, however, a pest control specialist can balance a limited usage of chemicals to remove pests without harming the environment.

IPM strategies help preserve ecosystems, increase biodiversity, shield useful organisms from harm and mitigate air pollution[xv].

Key Policies and Their Implementation

Pakistan has a good policy framework to fight climate change and air pollution. Every province has its own climate change policy in Pakistan. Many of these policies also aim to control emissions from agriculture sector and reduce the effects of air pollution on agricultural productivity by suggesting sustainable agricultural practices in Pakistan.

Therefore, if properly implemented, these policies can help to reduce air pollution, fight climate change, and increase the productivity and growth of agriculture sector.

Some specific polices to improve air quality and mitigate climate change impacts in Pakistan particularly with relevance to agriculture are as follows:

Policy Name	Objective	Role of Agriculture Sector	Impact on Air Quality
National Climate Change Policy (2012)[xvi]	Mitigating climate change impacts and promotes sustainable development.	Encourages sustainable farming practices, crop rotation and reduced use of chemical fertilizers	Reduces emissions of ammonia and methane, improving air quality.
Clean Green Pakistan Initiative (2018) [xvii]	Promote tree plantation, waste management, and sanitation.	Promotes agroforestry and tree plantation on farmlands to sequester carbon and reduce dust.	Increases green cover, reducing particulate matter (PM2.5/PM10) in the air.
Ten Billion Tree Tsunami Program [xviii]	Reforestation and ecosystem restoration.	Encourages farmers to plant trees on marginal lands and adopt agroforestry practices	Enhances carbon sequestration and reduces air pollution.
Pakistan Renewable Energy Policy (2022) [xix]	Increase the share of renewable energy in the energy mix.	Supports biogas plants from agricultural waste and solar-powered irrigation systems.	Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, lowering emissions of CO2 and other pollutants.
National Electric Vehicle Policy (2020) [xx]	Promote electric vehicles to reduce emissions from the transport sector.	Indirectly supports farmers by reducing air pollution, which benefits crop health and yields	Reduces vehicular emissions, improving overall air quality.
National Action Plan on Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) [xxi]	Reduce emissions of black carbon, methane, and other SLCPs.	Promotes better manure management, reduced rice stubble burning, and methane capture from livestock.	Reduces methane and black carbon emissions, improving air quality.
Provincial Agriculture Policies	Promote sustainable agriculture and resource management at the provincial level	Encourages organic farming, reduced pesticide use, and efficient irrigation techniques.	Lowers emissions of harmful chemicals and improves air quality
National Forest Policy (2015)[xxii]	Conserve and expand forest cover to combat climate change.	Encourages farmers to integrate trees into agricultural landscapes (agroforestry).	Increases carbon sequestration and reduces dust and particulate matter in the air.
National Livestock Policy (2021)[xxiii]	Promote sustainable livestock practices to reduce emissions.	Encourages better feed management, biogas production from manure, and reduced open grazing.	Reduces methane emissions from livestock, improving air quality.
Pakistan’s Updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) 2021[xxiv]	Commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions under the Paris Agreement.	Focuses on sustainable agriculture, reduced methane emissions, and improved management.	Reduces greenhouse gas emissions, including methane and CO2, improving air quality.
Pakistan Environment Protection Act 1997 [xxv]	Protect, conserve, and rehabilitate the environment.	Regulates agricultural practices to minimize environmental degradation, including air pollution.	Reduces emissions from agricultural activities and improves air quality
National Environmental Policy 2005 [xxvi]	Integrate environmental considerations into development planning.	Promote sustainable agricultural practices and reduced use of agrochemicals.	Reduces emissions of harmful chemicals and improves air quality.
Pakistan Climate Change Act 2017 [xxvii]	Institutionalize climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.	Encourages climate-resilient agriculture and reduced emissions from farming practices	Improves air quality by reducing agricultural emissions and promoting sustainable practices.
National Clean Air Policy 2023 [xxviii]	Improve air quality through targeted measures across sectors.	Promotes reduced burning of crop residues, adoption of cleaner farming technologies, and agroforestry.	Reduces particulate matter and greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activities.
Global Methane Pledge 2021 [xxix]	Reduce global methane emissions by 30% by 2030.	Focuses on reducing methane emissions from livestock, rice paddies, and agricultural waste.	Significantly reduces methane, a potent greenhouse gas, improving air quality.
Air Quality Standards and Regulations [xxx]	Enforce air quality standards to reduce pollution.	Promotes reduced burning of crop residues and adoption of cleaner farming practices.	Directly reduces particulate matter and smoke emissions from agricultural activities.

Key observations from the above table are:

1. Agriculture’s Central Role: Across all policies, the agriculture sector is identified as a key contributor to air pollution (e.g., methane emissions, crop residue burning) and a critical area for improvement through sustainable practices.
Methane Reduction: Policies like the Global Methane Pledge 2021 and NDCs 2021 specifically target methane emissions from agriculture. Methane is a major contributor to air pollution and climate change.
Integration of Climate and Air Quality Goals: Policies such as the National Clean Air Policy 2023 and Pakistan Climate Change Act 2017 explicitly link climate change mitigation with air quality improvement, emphasizing the role of agriculture.

Conclusion

Sustainable agricultural practices are essential for not only fighting climate change and air pollution but also conserving natural resources and maintaining ecological balance.

In addition to promoting climate-smart agriculture practices, it is mandatory to enforce stricter regulations on emissions from agricultural activities across the whole value chain, including transport, agri-processing, etc.

To introduce sustainable agriculture practices at scale, a broader partnership among key stakeholders (farmer associations, local governments, civil society and academia) should be forged. Awareness campaigns should be conducted to bring all stakeholders on board about the environmental impacts of ongoing practices and the benefits of sustainable alternatives. Training and support for adopting new technologies and practices is essential in this regard. Targeted government subsidies and incentives can help technology adoption.

To foster a sense of ownership and responsibility among local communities, they should be engaged in air quality monitoring and mitigation efforts. Community-led initiatives, such as tree planting, community bio-gas plants for producing energy and fertilizer, community-led initiatives for using crop residue and waste management programs, can contribute to air quality improvement.

Written by Dr Mahrukh Shams
On: January 30th 2025